The Proliferation of Corruption through Transnational Crime Essay Example for Free

The Proliferation of rotting through Transnational umbrage EssayThe international struggle against terrorism has caused form _or_ system of government analysts glob each(prenominal)y to re arrest the repercussions of such policies on the preponderance of subversion. Corruption has been acknowledged as a perennial, world(a) phenomenon however, it is single in contemporary times that the gravity of its impact on quietude and trade guard direct been scrutinized (Thachuk, 2005). Transnational organized offensive activity roots read centreively corrupted those in authority to selling their sovereignty so as to piddle states of convenience from which to conduct international operations. Thus, in carrying this our, they slang caused clayey disturbance of financial market movements, destructions of aspiring democratic governments and have engaged in harden practices just to achieve their villainous ends (Be be, 1997). The Transp arency International Newsletter has ver balise that these global perpetrators have established implicit agreements with corrupt government officials who virtually detach from their own citizens. The vastness and profundity of the decomposition of multinational abhorrence groups ceases to just creation bothersome for commerce nor is it a simple mechanism for fast bring in requests from government authority, or of being a financier for elections. This global problem represents a signifi plentyt holy terror to state sovereignty, destroying both local and global transactions. Of much crucial importance is the fact that official corruption of international execration groups threaten international stability and security with relative impunity (Transparency International Newsletter, 2001 in Thachuk, 2005).Acknowledging the grave nature of the use of official corruption, this paper proceeds with the following objectives 1) In the context of the relationship between officialdom and international organized law-breakin g groups what is a satisfactory definition of official corruption that suits the purposes of research into what corrupt practices actually facilitate the activities of such groups 2) identify which branches or units of government are most allergic to corruption in this context (for example constabulary, customs, immigration departments) and why and 3) through an extensive review of related literature, cite concrete examples from a global outmatch of the corrupt practices that facilitate the activities of organized criminal offence groups.International solvent to Organized Crime and Corruption International operations such as the Financial perform Task Force (FATF) have provided a means for scrutinizing heterogeneous aspects of organized crime regulation through the register of specific factors in organized crime operations like money laundering. By ensuring that such processes are carried out while still respecting the sovereignty of snarled countries, the knowledge regard ing organized crime has vastly benefited (Beare, 1997).At present, most international efforts against organized crime have mellowedlighted the importance of examining organized crime with respect to the location of its operations. prohibited markets initiate the proliferation of criminal activities. These are influenced by the presence of risk factors as well as the level of demand. The current approach being utilized is a joint international effort, or else of the traditional ranking systems (Beare, 1997 Thachuk, 2005).This collaborative method which is a recent development differs widely from the other approaches being utilized for the reduction of corruption. Similar to the 1960s view on organized crime, the dominant outlook is that corruption is a threat located in foreign shores which can be remedied by identifying those nations which are the fall violators (Transparency International worldwide Report, 2001).With such a set-up, people whitethorn spoil to see that some c orrupt and legitimate practices whitethorn be inextricably intertwined. overly the nature of corruption from this viewpoint would be explained without the needed historical, governmental and social contexts. Lastly, such an approach works on an assumption that there is a un disparateiated definition of corruption, which may non be the same crosswise boundaries (Transparency International spheric Report, 2001).Corruption is currently being viewed as if its definition was the same across nations. In a similar sense, organized crime had previously been used as an umbrella term for all types of criminal activities. However, the cut down of corruption across different jurisdictions would inevitably involve encountering different definitions and other factors.Although the usual analyses of corruption would readily acknowledge historical factors behind the development of corrupt behavior, they would still fail in recognizing that the definition of corruption varies from place to pl ace. Some forms of behavior may be much widely accepted as corrupt when compared to others depending on the locality. tetrad arbitrary categories from a western perspective may be used to demonstrate the wide scope of this concept (Beare, 1997)Bribes/kick-backs. Payments are demanded or expected in return for being allowed to do legitimate business. The payment becomes the license to do business. Those who make the payments are allowed to compete or to win contractsElection/Campaign Corruption. Illegal payments are made at the time of elections to secure continuing influenceProtection. Officials accept payments (or privilege) from criminal organizations in exchange for permitted them to engage in illegitimate businessessystemic top-down corruption. A nations wealth is systematically syphoned off or exploited by the ruling elites (Beare, 1997, p. 157).The aforementioned categories are neither complete nor exclusionary. They are only listed for the purpose of comparing the differenc es between the ill effects arising from each.Bribes or Kick-backs Bribes or kick-backs are the small or large payments which are made to facilitate the learning of permits, licenses and contracts. Businesses which are legal participate in this transaction in order to hasten processes or to gain an advantage over other competitors. According to Ernesto Savona (1995), being sly (furbo) in this case utilizing bribery would mean that a person is simply taking advantage of opportunities. However, this should still be within acceptcapable limits, as those charged and razetually convicted with corruption in Italy had exceeded the acceptable boundaries (Savona, 1995).There seems to be a culture of acceptance in some areas such as Latin the States, where individuals in cause are still expected to patronize and book people with whom they have relationships with such as their family and party (Savona, 1995). This can be seen with police demand bites (mordidas) instead of issuing tickets fo r violations, undisclosed donations being accepted by semipolitical parties, bidding for out-of-court settlements and the use of speed money to steer clear of bureaucratism (Savona, 1995).Although a uniform definition is yet to be agreed upon for this form of corruption, it nevertheless receives the most media attention. The past few years have seen how countries are openly ranked in this form of corruption based on their reputation in engaging in this sort of act. star organization engaging in the elimination of corruption in business practices is Transparency International (TI) (e.g. Hong Kong Independent Commission Against Corruption sponsored 1983 in Wash. DC., 1985 NY City, 1987 Hong Kong, 1989 Sydney Australia, 1992 capital of The Netherlands, the Netherlands, 1993 Cancun Mexico, 1995 Beijing, China). This organization had sponsored several surveys which rated the perceived level of corruption in different countries.The 1995 TI Corruption Index tried to assess just how much c orruption has affected businesses. In a similar study, Huberts (1996) interviewed delegates from different countries regarding public corruption, service and ethics. He goes on to say how his study is not well received among academicians, but aside from the sensitive nature of the data, this reception of the study may simply be due to the wide range or types of corruption. These surveys are limited to the fact that they may rattling well just be measuring corruption in its most blatant forms (Criminal Justice International, 1996 Companies and their Consciences, 1996).Election Corruption Providing the needed funding as well as other forms of support during the election head is part of this form of corruption. This is accomplished to obtain needed influence. Even with international observers, many voters in countries such as Thailand and India ex guide to expect that their votes would be bought. Corruption persist ins to be an issue even after elections as the heads of state of Ve nezuela, Brazil, Spain and Italy serve as specific cases (Beare, 1997 Wright, 1997).In the United States, the issue of campaign costs which can run up to the hundreds of millions of dollars for candidates cannot be overlooked. MacArthur (1997) did not want to place the blame solely on the backers and businessmen alone. He cited how politicians would tend to sell different items such including an intangible commodity called access, which is occasionally translate to a vote for a certain bill (MacArthur, 1997).The public was expose to stories which involved White House bedrooms being rented out for sleepovers and of Clinton being associated with Indonesian campaign funds. The purchasing of access and influence in political Action Committees was as well as readily seen. MacArthur (1997) continues to say that a candidate clamoring for reforms backed by three billionaires is no more bought than a party hack that has spent his go in obtaining money from millionaires in several occasion s.Sometimes, cultural factors may affect how society would react to this form of corruption. Savona (1995) cited how a focus on corruption enabled Italy to reduce or oust old ruling class and expedited the change towards a young political system. He continued to state his fear on how new corrupters could be produced who would be able to escape the eyes of law enforcers, having learned their lesson from those who had been caught earlier. Those politicians who appear to be greatly opposed towards corruption in Latin America at times may very well have been the primary violators themselves. The Wall Street Journal (1996) continues by citing a particular news-weekly which stated how everyone is an accuser and incriminate.Protection Another type of corruption involves allowing criminal acts to pervade in exchange for money, which is an activity aided by the presence of corrupt officials. Activities which involve the moment and exportation of corkings such as drug trafficking and smu ggling operations as well as mislabeled gambling are some probable activities (Beare, 1997). deflection from an environment provided by government which may be conducive, organized crime continues to persist because of corrupt relations existing between violators and regulatory or enforcement agencies. done the use of violent and intimidating acts, criminal organizations may be able to influence any dispute settlement activities that are raised to control agencies. Thus, these very control agencies may be the same ones allowing the criminal operations (MacArthur, 1997).Within formerly communist and dictator-led countries, newly-granted freedoms have resulted in varying forms of social disorganization. The existence of illegal activities such as black markets under former regimes coupled with new freedoms has ensured that corruption would be rampant (MacArthur, 1997). New laws and regulations may have the same effect as changes in government and political alignments.Approximately 8 00 million pounds was lost through fraudulent means in the 1996 europiuman Union budget. Some transnational operations involve complicit government officials. Various opportunities for corruption are presented during the determination of when taxes are applicable and reimbursable. Corruption has alike been traced in countries receiving aid for their transition governments or which has experienced an environmental disaster (Leiken, 1996).One case has at its center two professors from Harvard embezzling a government funds amounting to 57 million dollars for a throw up in Russia. One journalist statedThe case is certain to run and run, doubtless spawning lawsuits as it goes. But for the Russians it is, at the very least, a reminder that all is not always as rosy as it sounds either in the cradle of body politic or in the stratosphere of its academia (Harvard Caught Up in capital of the Russian Federation Row, 1997).Another incident in 1996 involved the arrest of a United States im migration means by Hong Kongs Independent Commission Against Corruption. The very same agent who had cracked down on smuggling operations realized that the profits to be made were too tempting. By negotiating with various Honduran and Hong Kong officials, he was able to organize a smuggling operation for himself (Beare, 1997). Corrupt individuals may also be found in the implementation of environmental laws. Bonanno and Constance (1996) have cited how corporations, specifically those involved in the tuna-dolphin issue, are constantly in search of countries with more lenient environmental laws as well as cheaper labor and taxes.They had delved on how purse-seine tuna fishing yielded great catches of tuna while also c knowinguring dolphins at the same time. Prohibitions were implemented by the United States against this particular from of fishing (Bonanno Constance, 1996). Some strategies which have been employed by corporations involve changing the flags of fishing boats into tho se of foreign nations as well as the shipment of tuna from third-party countries. In a similar case, there is believed to be an undercover garlic smuggling operation resulting from the protective tariffs on garlic in the state of California. Corrupt officials have become the beneficiaries of these illegal activities (Myers in Beare, 1997).Corruption in the ranks of police officials has also been an issue of concern for many countries such as Canada. Although these cases may be uncommon, police corruption cases tend to be highly-publicized (Myers in Beare, 1997). One possible explanation could be the development of law which benefits those individuals participating in money laundering investigations and sting operations. Coupled with the confiscation of huge volumes of money and drugs, the police can become especially prone to taking part in corruption (Mollen Commission Report, 1994).Different places have earned their own notorious reputations for corruption in their respective po lice organizations. However, the task of making approximate comparisons regarding the corruption among these different areas would prove to be seemingly impossible. This is because corruption that has not yet been caught or identified in some districts would never be accounted for (Mollen Commission Report, 1994).Systemic Corruption In 1992, an ironic sequence of events had unfolded in Brazil starting from the impeachment of because President Fernando Collor de Mello for graft and influence peddling after he had won the election through an anti-corruption platform. Following this, many of those who had accused him in Congress were also charged with embezzlement involving the committees which they had headed. A poll in 1993 had cited corruption and a weak government as the reason behind the dwindling support for democracy (Beare, 1997).This systemic category of corruption has been the most highly publicized and is characterized by the vulnerability of the whole society to different forms of corruption. At times this may even involve the illegal transfer of wealth from the country to its leadership. An illegal activity of this nature would normally be accomplished over a lengthy period of time before the voluntary exit or forced ouster of the leader. Corruption of this type is a combination of the first three types of corruption and usually implicates the elite (Beare, 1997).Countering CorruptionFollowing the September 11, 2001 terrorism attack in New York and Washington, the chief of Interpol, Ronald Noble (2001) expressed that the struggle to combat terrorism cannot be won over through the militarys efforts alone. He further cites, the most sophisticated security systems, the best structures, or trained and dedicated security personnel are useless, if they are undermined from the inside by a single act of corruption (Noble, 2001).The fight against transnational crime groups corrupt and terroristic activities is impressively present through the democracy str ongly practiced within the states they use. While this is being said, many of the states involved are experiencing the grave repercussions of corruption by transnational crime groups. An outcome is more stringent efforts towards its resolution, including conferences, agreements and pledges made by global and regional entities collaborating to solve the issue (Noble, 2001).The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Asian Development wedge (ADB) have established a partnership aiming to control if not totally eradicate bribery, especially among foreign officers. These parties concur that by addressing corruption as a mere crime may not adequate it may be more practical to delve into the root causes of the problem and its role in the publicity of transnational crime.Other entities which have pledged their commitment in combating corruption is the African Union and the Organization of American States (Introductory Proceedings ADB/OECD Conference on Combatin g Corruption in Asian and Pacific Economies, 1999). An overarching strategy for the encouragement of effective governance is by implementing structural, legal, and administrative foolproof policy changes that will discourage corrupt activities among citizens as well as those in authority.In addition, being able to develop a country economically and strengthening its institutions will weaken the hold of transnational crime groups over these nations. Other measures to counter corruption practices is to beef up the military and security agencies of the country.For instance, the provision of financial assistance of the International Monetary strain of the World Bank partly anchors its lending decision to the countrys initiatives to counter corruption. They have put exceptional premium on the practice of effective governance spelled out in terms of fiscal responsibility and the honesty and morality with which they undertake their transactions within the government, as attested to by the statutes stated in the IMF Code of Good Practices on Fiscal Transparency (2001).The IMF Code of Good Practices on Fiscal Transparency (2001) specifies goals for principles and practices, culled from the IMPs prescription of good governance among its affiliate nations. Transparency International is a non-governmental organization that offers comprehensive hand-holding to those nations which aim to counter corruption and financial maneuvering of transnational crime groups (Transparency International Global Report, 2001). To carry this out, it disseminates a bulletin on corruption-in essence using publicity and peer pressure to encourage administrations into supporting similar schedules intended to battle corruption. The group has emphasized the revelation of terrorism-related money laundering acts (Transparency International Global Report, 2001).Such a profound perspective on battling corruption is better than superficial initiatives. many agreements which have been drafted since t ime immemorial have not made a difference in resolving this issue while transnational crime groups continue to steal officially from these nations (Transparency International Global Corruption Report, 2001).Instead, the most effective vehicle for countering prevalent corruption in any number of nations is the media. The name and outrage lobbying of the media has had the most potent impact, and has made the public keenly informed about corruption. The pubilcity has emphasized the accusations wrought on the corrupt political leaders, including Guilio Andreotti, Noboru Takeshita, Alberto Fujimori, and Carlos Salinas, to mention a few (Tranparency International Global Corruption Report, 2001).More alarming is the fact that politicians use information on corrupt acitivities to launch smear campaigns against their adversaries. These have worked effectively in nations including Italy, France, Mexico, Costa Rica, Thailand, Japan, and Nigeria, among others. This strongly signifies the negat ivity raised among the public on corrupt officials, and those that benefit from breaching the trust of the voting public (Transparency International Global Corruption Report, 2001). in one case they have been legally appointed as government officials, the honesty which they have once professed gives out and they are eaten by the corrupt system.I There have been global agreements put in place to resolve various human rights issues that have been inflicted by transnational crime groups. The metrics against transnational crime ought to be taken in on the national, regional and global scales to attain authentic effectiveness. A handful of these initiatives have been established for instance, in 1988 the UN Convention Against Illicit traffic in Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances or the UN Drug Convention, it has been necessary to ask for the legal help of all nations participating in the conference (Savona Defeo, year).Another initiative at the regional level is the formation of the Financial Action Task Force at the Economic Summit of Industrialized Countries in 1989. The group aims to draft a global perspective in the resolution of money laundering. In the latter part of 1988, the Group of Ten countries established the Basel Committee on Banking Regulations and Supervisory Practices, and the Council of Europe has a draft convention on money laundering (Savona Defeo, year). Two years after in 1990, the European Plan to Fight Drugs has been instituted by the Europeran Community. The program has been further developed in 1992 (Labrouse Wallon, year).These initiatives at all levels will contribute significantly to the resolution of the corruption traced from transnational crime which have inflicted harm to global governments and their economies.The cooperation among law enforcement forces must also be encouraged to allow the share of information related to the movements of these crime groups. There has been a conference among law enforcement agencies fr om more than 100 countries this Naples confrence intended to share data on transnational crime. Global protocol for such information exchange must also be crafted (National legislation and its adequacy to fence with the various forms of organized transnational crime Appropriate guidelines for legislative and other measures to be taken on the national level, 1994).However, the constraints of such initiatives are apparent at both national and global levels. For instance, in the US, they are presently very gullible to transnational crime since federal law prohibits the CIA from sharing with the FBI intelligence that it collects abroad. Numerous legal protections of its citizens, specifically addressing the rights of the accused, have been taken advtantaged of by high level criminals. The other loopholes between information and law enforcement are also leveraged on by these crime groups and ought to be addressed in global crime conferences (National legislation and its adequacy to dea l with the various forms of organized transnational crime Appropriate guidelines for legislative and other measures to be taken on the national level, 1994).The UN has indicated that the struggle against corruption inflicted by transnational crime groups could be imporoved if there is greater collaboration among countries in taking on laws that criminalize involution or engagement with such group activities, conspiracy, laundering and asset forfeiture. This was specified in their policy proposals for the 1994 ministerial Conference on Organized Transnational Crime (National legislation and its adequacy to deal with the various forms of organized transnational crime Appropriate guidelines for legislative and other measures to be taken on the national level, 1994).Moreover, these documents have also uphled the implementation of measures for addressing transnational crime (The feasibility of elaborating international instruments, including conventions, against organized transnational crime, 1994). The employment of more countries has been encouraging however, there will remain nations whose officials have been hopelessly corrupted and whose legal systems are too backward or obsolete precluding participation into such collaboration. There will still be loopholes in these countries, and official corruption shall surely take its toll in their law enforcement capabilities.International Response to Organized Crime and Corruption International operations such as the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) have provided a means for scrutinizing various aspects of organized crime regulation through the study of specific factors in organized crime operations like money laundering. By ensuring that such processes are carried out while still respecting the sovereignty of involved countries, the knowledge regarding organized crime has immensely benefited (Beare, 1997).At present, most international efforts against organized crime have highlighted the importance of examining or ganized crime with respect to the location of its operations. Illegal markets initiate the proliferation of criminal activities. These are influenced by the presence of risk factors as well as the level of demand. The current approach being utilized is a joint international effort, instead of the traditional ranking systems (Beare, 1997 Thachuk, 2005).This collaborative method which is a recent development differs widely from the other approaches being utilized for the reduction of corruption. Similar to the 1960s view on organized crime, the dominant outlook is that corruption is a threat located in foreign shores which can be remedied by identifying those nations which are the top violators (Transparency International Global Report, 2001).With such a set-up, people may fail to see that some corrupt and legitimate practices may be inextricably intertwined. Also the nature of corruption from this viewpoint would be explained without the needed historical, political and social contex ts. Lastly, such an approach works on an assumption that there is a uniform definition of corruption, which may not be the same across boundaries (Transparency International Global Report, 2001).ConclusionFrom the review of related literature, it may be clearly gleaned that transnational crime groups aim for states which have implicit acceptance of corruption. Upon system in these havens, they seek corrupt officials and security personnel who will expedite their financial dealings and routine. Among the benefits they yield from this network is access to plans of the government and eventual protection of their illegal activities (Thachuk, 2005).In cleverly setting up their operations this way, they effectively allow individuals to run governments with the latter ceasing to be an acknowledged institution. Moreover, they disrespect the law and release it of any legitimacy. Because of their corrupt activities, these nations are deprived of opportunities to participate in internationa l agenda. On a more encompassing scale, the use of official corruption of transnational crime groups ceases to be a problem of the concerned republics but more of a global security issue (Beare, 1997 Thachuk, 2005).The alarmingly quick development of transnational crime is an international occurrence that merits attention. The phenomenon has successfully been integrated into political channels, corrupting them to gain legitimacy for their illegal transactions.The grave outcomes of this include the deterrment of economic growth, disrespect and threat against democracy, corruption for the law and for some nations, ethnic violations. The loopholes posed by weakness of the states, including Africa, Latin America, and Asia make them incapable of controlling their own boundaries or to form apt internal legal groups.These borders have become webs of netting through whose holes passes the business of organized crime through corruption.The impending danger posed on countries by corruption of transnational crime groups is not caused by a single criminal entity. Instead, this is composed of a vast criminal network that has potent political and economic networks. They have effectively used corruption to deter law enforcement institutions to undertake what is just to curb criminal activity. In various countries, organized crime have substituted for the various roles of the state, serving as an obstacle to economic growth and to the development of budding democracies.Corruption as a social phenomenon and problem is not constrained by geographic borders. Each nation does have its own share of clientelism, patronage and selfish government officials. While certain nations only have a handful of common denominators in the historical, political and economic spheres, this does not imply they may not share the same corruption issues (Thachuk, 1995). While this may be the daunting case, majority of these nations have expressed their willingness to participate, share their competenc e, undertake training and work collaboratively with non-government organizations to solve the problem.These NGOs are hopeful that there may be mechanisms inwrought in government structure that may be utilized for detecting corrupt activities, reprimanding those involved and to attempt to foolproof the system (well nearly). In the presbyopic haul, countries are bound to feel the tension exerted on them to comply with anti-corruption measures.Democracy shall cease to be a faade in promoting corrupt activities of transnational crime groups, conspiring with government officials, security and police personnel, and customs officers. Simultaneously, the pressure for governments to increase honesty and integrity in their dealings will also be focused on. The number one wood for these changes shall be sourced from grassroots movements fueled by media support. The documentation and critique of the corrupt activities of public officials is a crucial obstacle to curb immoral use of power (Th achuk, 2005).Some strategies being employed for reducing corruption may actually yield adverse results. Focus on business-related corruption is primarily motivated by Western interests which are usually detrimental to the less developed countries. An undesirable consequence arising from the labeling of nations as corrupt includes the realization of such labels through self-fulfilling prophecy. By garnering high ratings for corruption in Huberts or TI surveys, corrupt practices may actually become normalized or socially accepted in those communities (Beare, 1997).The Council of Europe utilizes a FATF-type military rank procedure which allows member states to evaluate each other in terms of their anti-money laundering and corruption conventions. Through the meticulous review of anti-corruption legislation and policies from the different countries, corruption could then be placed in its proper context and positive results might then be achieved. However, the characteristic of corrupti on being deeply ingrained within the culture of different societies and thus taking various forms, may prove to be quite a hindrance (Beare, 1997).Corruption can be quite enticing for certain governments, high-ranking officials, corporations and sectors of the public. Then, it would not be advisable to think along the line that one can corruption-proof an area. On the other hand, a system should be put in place which constantly strives to create and maintain a culture of intolerance towards corruption. A possible means for combating corruption would be through changes in the personnel or other conditions such as the economic and social climate. By focusing on certain aspects of corruption, these can then be specifically identified and consequently addressed.ReferencesBeare, M. (1997). Corruption and organized crime Lessons from history. Crime, Law Social Change, 28, 155-172.Beare, M.E. (1996). Criminal conspiracies organized crime in canada. Toronto Nelson Canada.Bonanno, A. Const ance, D. (1996). Caught in the net The global tuna industry. In Environmentalism and the state. Lawrence Kansas University of Kansas Press.Companies and their consciences. In the Economist, 1996 July 20, 15.Criminal Justice International. (1996). 1995 TI Corruption Index, 12(4), July-August.Global Corruption Report 2001. (2001). Politics and patronage elective ideals compromised. Transparency International.Harvard caught up in Moscow row.(1997). The Independent, 22 May.Huberts, L. (1996). Expert views on public corruption around the globe. PSPA Publications, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Boelelaan, The Netherlands.Introductory Proceedings ADB/OECD Conference on Combating Corruption in Asian and Pacific Economies. (1999). Asian Development Bank.Labrouse, A. Wallon, A. (eds.) (1993). La Planete des drogues organisations criminelles, guerres el blanchiment. Paris Editions du Seuil.Leiken, R.S. (1996). tyrannical the global co rruption epidemic. Foreign Policy, 55-73.MacArthur, J.R. (1997). The real corrupters of the US electoral system. Globe and Mail, 21 March, Al7.Mollen Commission Report. (1994). Commission to investigate allegations of police corruption and the anti-corruption procedures of the police department, 7 July.Myers, W. (1997). Interview with Director of the Centerfor the Study of Asian Organized Crime. In Beare, M. Corruption and organized crime Lessons from history. Crime, Law Social Change, 28, 155-172.National legislation and its adequacy to deal with the various forms of organized transnational crime appropriate guidelines for legislative and other measures to be taken on the national level. Background document for the World Ministerial Conference on Organized Transnational Crime (Naples, 21-23 November 1994), 23.Noble, R. (2001). Interpol Press Release, Oct. 8.Savona, E. Defeo, M. (1994). Money trails International money laundering trends and prevention/control policies, Helsinki In stitute for Crime Prevention and Control (HEUNI) Report prepared for the International Conference on Preventing and Controlling Money Laundering and the Use of Proceeds of Crime A Global Approach. Courmayeur June.Savona, E.U. (1995). Beyond criminal law in devising anticorruption policies lessonsfrom the italian experience. look into Group on Transnational Crime, School of Law, University of Trento, Italy.Thachuk, K. (2005). Corruption and international security. SAIS Review, 25(1), Academic Research Library, 143.Transparency International. (2001). Transparency International Newsletter. (2001). December 2001.Wright, R. (1997). Democracies in peril Freedoms excesses reduce democracys life span. Special report to the Los Angeles Times, 17 February.